In Kantian ethics, which statement is true about research involving human subjects?

• A. Using subjects as a means to an end is acceptable if consent is obtained.
• B. Inform consent is optional if the potential benefit is high.
• C. All subjects must be treated equally, but autonomy is not essential.
• D. Subjecting patients to a substantial risk of reduced autonomy or death is never justified, even with informed consent.

Answer: (D)

In Kantian ethics, rational beings must be treated as ends in themselves, never merely as means to someone else’s ends. This means respecting each person’s autonomy and dignity at all times. Subjecting patients to a substantial risk of reduced autonomy or death would degrade their capacity for self-governance and treat them as instruments for the benefit of others, which Kantian ethics forbids. Even with informed consent, the fundamental obligation is to respect the person as a rational agent, not to maximize outcomes by sacrificing autonomy or life.

The idea that using subjects as a means to an end is acceptable if consent is obtained conflicts with this duty to treat people as ends. If the act instrumentalizes a person, it remains unethical in Kantian terms, regardless of consent. If informed consent were optional for high potential benefit, autonomy would be overridden by outcome considerations, which Kantianism rejects. Finally, saying all subjects must be treated equally but autonomy is not essential contradicts the central Kantian emphasis on respecting each person’s autonomous status.